The depiction of women in all forms of media, including...

The depiction of women in all forms of media, including print, broadcasted and internet media, is constantly showing that they are the weaker of the two sexes. Gender. What is it? How does it make us who we are? Are we dependent on it? So many questions derive from this one word, gender. Gender, according to ITU is the ‘social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female’. There are so many different parts of the term gender and so many roles that each sex partakes in. One role that I have noticed amongst every form of media, weather it is in books or in movies is that women appear to be the weaker of the two sexes. I don’t believe women are weak and there have been many changes in society to this day that agree†¦show more content†¦I think Disney is the obvious choice to blame for the portrayal of weak women. I mean, Disney resolves around the idea that women need rescuing, that we are the damsels in distress. I, being 16, grew up watching Cinderella, Snow White and Rapunzel. All those movies have the same common motif, â€Å"that one day my prince will come†. In fact, the entire Disney princess’ movies collection seems to have the same story line. The endings all had the same idea involving being rescued or saved by a â€Å"prince charming†. Another popular kid’s movie that was created, that did have some hope for the depiction of women was Shrek. The idea of the damsel in distress was turned on its head when Princess Fiona got the shock of her life when the big ogre showed up to rescue her. Fiona went from being the damsel to the sudden ‘I’m better than you’ attitude because Shrek didn’t live up to the typical â€Å"prince charming†. However Shrek lost this powerful message by the end of the movie and completely threw it in the bag by the end of the third movie in the motion picture series when Fiona and Shrek got married and had a family. Yeah, it was sweet and had the message that it is wrong to judge people solely by their appearances alone, but it also showed the transformation that Fiona took to become â€Å"perfect† for Shrek. When I am down in the dumps and just want to relax with a nice cup of hot cocoa and watch some romantic movie that makes every teenage girl reassess her life,

Implementation of Global Strategy Free Essays

Manag Int Rev (2011) 51:179–192 DOI 10. 1007/s11575-011-0071-6 R e s e a R c h a Rt i c l e Effective? Global? Strategy? Implementation Structural? and? Process? Choices? Facilitating? Global? Integration? and? Coordination Attila? Yaprak?  ·? Shichun? Xu?  ·? Erin? Cavusgil Abstract:? 0 0 this article offers a contingency framework of global strategy implementation effectiveness on firm performance. The research question we seek to address is what the structural and process requirements are for MNEs to successfully implement global strategy through increased efficiency and effectiveness of integration and coordination across world markets. We will write a custom essay sample on Implementation of Global Strategy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Our central premise is that MNEs’ capabilities in establishing supporting structural and process mechanisms will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of implementing their global strategies which would, in turn, lead to better firm performance. Keywords:? Integration and coordination  · Global strategy  · Firm performance  · contingency framework Received:? 25. 12. 2009 / Revised:? 15. 08. 2010 / Accepted:? 11. 10. 2010 / Published? online: 02. 04. 2011  © Gabler-Verlag 2011 Prof. A. Yaprak (? ) Department of Marketing, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA e-mail: Attila. aprak@wayne. edu Asst. Prof. S. Xu Department of Marketing and Logistics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA Asst. Prof. E. Cavusgil Department of Marketing, University of Michigan-Flint, Flint, USA 180 A. Yaprak et al. Introduction The globalization of the world economy and markets has given rise to the growth of multinational enterprises (MNEs). With the expanded geographical scope and disp ersed operations across national borders, managing MNEs effectively has become a challenging task for managers. As such, numerous studies have been conducted to understand what contributes to the success of MNEs in the global market. Many studies have adopted the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm as the theoretical basis of such an exploration, arguing that the competitive advantage of MNEs is sourced primarily in their ability to access and acquire rare and inimitable resources that create better value for customers around the world (e. g. Peng et al. 2008). These resources are considered indicators of firm performance levels in the global market (Lu et al. 010; Peng et al. 2008). While RBV has been instrumental in explaining the performance differences among MNEs, arguments have been advanced that the mere possession of resources is insufficient to generate superior performance (Sirmon et al. 2007). For instance, Barney and Arikan (2006) state that assuming appropriate strategic action will automatically follow from the recognition of valuable resources within the firm is an intellectual ly naive assumption. Specifically, how resources can be used through strategic actions to create superior value to create a competitive advantage for the firm remains unclear (Priem and Butler 2001). While firm resources have a more or less direct impact on the strategic courses of action a firm may pursue, implementation of such strategies to realize value creation potential remains an under-researched topic (Barney and Arikan 2006). This deficiency in the literature has led to the distinction between resources and capabilities. Lu et al. (2010) propose that resources and capabilities are clearly distinguishable from each other. While Grant (1991) defined resources as stocks of tangible and intangible assets which firms use to convert into products and services while capabilities are viewed as intermediate goods generated by the firm to enhance the productivity of resources (Amit and Schoemaker 1993). As such, capabilities are different from resources since they act as enablers for firms to create value more effectively from the resources they possess. This distinction between resources and capabilities has encouraged researchers to examine the effect of MNEs’ capabilities on firm performance. Research regarding the capabilities of MNEs has mostly focused on those that facilitate global strategy formulation. For example, Elango and Pattnaik (2007) propose that networking capabilities have a direct impact on the internationalization strategy of the firm. Peng et al. (2008) articulates a framework in which firm resources and capabilities are viewed as one of three antecedents of a firm’s international business strategy (the other two being industry based competition and institutional conditions and transitions). Thus, the current literature sheds light only on how the capabilities of MNEs enable them to formulate appropriate strategic choices that match their resources with opportunities in their external, that is, their global, environment. However, mechanisms that ensure successful implementation of the chosen strategies remain unclear. While we assume that MNEs should be able to establish appropriate structures to match their strategies, research has shown that there is a lot of incongruence between MNE strategy and structure (Duysters and Hagedoorn 2001). Effective Global Strategy Implementation 181 Based on this backdrop and drawing from the strategic fit literature, the purpose of this paper is to offer a contingency framework of global strategy implementation effectiveness on firm performance. The research question we seek to answer is what the structural and process requirements are for MNEs to successfully implement global strategy through increased efficiency and effectiveness of integration and coordination across world markets. Our central premise is that MNEs’ capabilities in establishing supporting structural and process mechanisms will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of implementing their global strategies which would, in turn, lead to better firm performance. That is, we argue that firms need to achieve a harmonious configuration among strategy, structure, and process to better deliver superior value from the resources they possess. The remainder of this article is organized as follows. After reviewing the literature and presenting a comprehensive picture of the integration and coordination dimensions of global strategy, we offer propositions for future research. We discuss the merits of exploring each of these and conclude with suggestions for managerial practice. Conceptualizations? of? Global? Strategy The globalization of the world economy has pushed many organizations, particularly those MNEs with abundant resources, to rethink how they compete in this expanded market. The increasingly interdependent financial, product, and labor markets are all advancing at different paces towards a â€Å"globalized† system (Buckley and Ghauri 2004). As the political, economic, and cultural forces increasingly promote a global environment, many industries have become global in nature (Morrison and Roth 1992; Kim et al. 2003). Such global industries are largely driven by three structural forces: economies of scale, comparative advantage, and standardized markets (Birkinshaw et al. 1995). Firms competing in such industries have gradually been adopting a global strategy in which they no longer view their subsidiaries located across the world as independent subunits, but as a highly interdependent network (Kim and Hwang 1992). Global strategy is thus characterized as developing competitive advantage through operating in interdependent national markets by exploiting differences in national resource endowments, the flexibility of MNC networks, and economies of scale and scope, as well as learning (Malnight 1996). Extant literature suggests that the strategic choice of a firm competing in global markets is a function of firm traits and aptitudes and market contexts (Peng et al. 2008). The positive relationship between financial and market performance and global strategy is also well documented in the literature (Roth 1992; Kim et al. 2003). We further argue that these relationships are mediated by the interplay among strategy, structure and processes of the firm (Fig. 1). We now discuss these, in turn. Firm Traits and Aptitudes Firm traits and aptitudes refer to the resources and capabilities that a firm possesses to compete in the global marketplace. These resources and capabilities can take on different forms such as culture, knowledge, orientation, experiences, and learning capability. 182 A. Yaprak et al. Firm Traits Aptitudes Innovative Culture Firm’s strategic creativity in its marketing strategy making Latitude in autonomy vs. control Local Embeddedness Depth in local market knowledge Local market orientation International Embeddedness International Orientation International Experience Firm Capabilities in Cross-subsidization (Leverage) Organizational learning Market Contexts Degree of international integration Degree of similarity with the primary international market Processes Degree of integration of strategic design and implementation [Integration vs. Independence] Configuration Perspective Strategy Degree of standardization . n marketing strategy [Standardization vs. Adaption] Coordination / Integration Strategy Performance Structure Degree of Concentration of value chain activities [Concentration vs. Dispersion] Contingency Perspective Fig.? 1: Strategy, structure, and processes as mediators of the firm, market and performance relationship. (Source: Constructed by the authors from Lim et al. 2006), Menon et al. (1999), Ozsomer and Prussia (2000), Solberg (2000), Xu et al. (2006), Zou and Cavusgil (2002)) Studies suggest that a fundamental antecedent to superior performance is the corporate culture of the firm, particularly those associated with innovation capabilities. They show that innovative culture, reflected by the firm’s creativity in its marketing strategy making, is a key ingredient in influencing strategic performance. They fu rther show that focus on effective se of the firm’s marketing assets and capabilities and prudent resource commitments across markets will upgrade its cross-market integration skills, and thereby enhance its market performance (Menon et al. 1999). The firm’s ability in reverse-innovating products, distributing them globally, and its skills in expanding opportunities in difficult markets and pioneering worthy segments in different types of market settings, all manifestations of creative strategy making, will also upgrade its market performance (Immelt et al. 009). A second key firm trait involves local market embeddedness. Local market orientation underscored by increasing depth of local market knowledge will lead to higher levels of global market penetration. When coupled with the ability to adapt to cultural diversity and affinity to the local market intermediaries’ aspirations to extract common denominators for many markets, this will likely lead to higher deg rees of strategy effectiveness (Solberg 2000). Equally important is international embeddedness. International orientation, bolstered by previous international business and/or marketing experience in the major markets of the firm will give the firm latitude in integrating and coordinating its competitive moves across world markets and thus lead to network-wide efficiencies, effectiveness and synergies. This valuable organizational resource will also help simplify worldwide planning and help establish the firm’s brands with a consistent image across markets; thereby enhancing the firm’s marketing strategy performance (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). Effective Global Strategy Implementation 83 Firm capabilities in organizational learning and cross-subsidization will affect global market performance positively. The firm’s ability to learn more and faster than its competitors and from its alliance partners in foreign markets will advance its marketing capabilities. Its skills in leveraging resources, information, experience, and ideas across markets and affiliates, sacr ificing competitive gains in some markets for the benefit of other markets, and sharing organizational learning gains across its affiliate network will help the firm maintain a strong configural advantage, nd will improve the firm’s marketing strategy performance (Craig and Douglas 2000; hamel 1991; Lim et al. 2006). In light of these arguments, we propose that: P1: Firm traits, such as innovative culture and strategic creativity and firm aptitudes such as local and international embeddedness, along with capabilities in organizational learning and cross-subsidization, will enhance the adoption of a global strategy, which in turn, will positively influence firm performance. Market Contexts Porter (1990) suggests that the industry in which a firm finds itself competing largely determines its strategic choices. Market contexts specifically examine the external environment and the opportunities it presents to the firm. Market contexts, such as global industry and the firm’s global orientation and international experience, will also give firms an incentive to adopt a global strategy which will, in turn, enhance marketing strategy performance. One argument here is that global strategy seeks benefits from both comparative and competitive advantages by leveraging economies of scale derived from common market demand and dispersion of operations across world markets to benefit from factor cost differences (Kim et al. 003). The degree of similarity among markets will incentivize firms to adopt a globally-integrated strategy which will lead to efficiencies and strategy effectiveness, and this will improve performance (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). Participation in multiple markets offers the firm the ability to identify different opportunities with which to exploit its resources. For example, the f irm can extend its product life cycle by launching products with different pacings across global markets. Market contexts offer greater flexibility in implementing global business battles against competitors. Participation in multiple markets also helps firms identify different value chain activity locations based on the unique comparative advantages of each location. The degree of integration in the firm’s markets will foster easier leveraging of resources and capabilities and will ease learning from these. As the firm expands increasingly into dissimilar markets, however, it will be inspired to develop creative solutions, innovative marketing mix adaptations, and imaginative strategies. The degree of coordination and differentiation in marketing strategies the firm is able to implement in global markets and its ability to harmonize competitive tactics across regions will also improve performance (Lim et al. 2006; Schilke et al. 2009). Since markets are dynamic, their changing nature will require emerging strategic mechanisms, inspiring the firm toward developing creative market-based learning, rather than deliberative solutions (Ozsomer and Prussia 2000; Vorhies and Morgan 2005). Thus, we propose that: 184 A. Yaprak et al. P2: Similarities and dissimilarities among the firm’s market contexts will move the firm toward adopting a global strategy, which in turn, will enhance marketing strategy performance. Integration and Coordination in Global Strategy and Implementation As the competitive advantage in adopting a global strategy lies in the firms’ ability to effectively link competitive actions across national markets, global integration becomes a critical task in coping with the challenges posed by the integrated global competitive arena (Kim et al. 2003). Thus, firms adopting a globally integrated strategy seek to integrate their globally-dispersed activities in a manner that will help them develop combinations of comparative (that is, location-specific) and competitive (that is, firm-specific) advantages that will foster more effective responses to cross-national competitive forces (Roth and Schweiger 1991). Global integration, that is the coordination and control of business operations and functions across national borders (Cray 1984), is viewed as the ideal indicator of the degree of comparative and competitive advantage combinations within the firm (Kobrin 1991; Rangan and Sengul 2009). Roth and Schweiger (1991) describe these two sources of advantage in a global strategy as that developed through international scale economies and economies of scope (competitive), and that which results from exploiting the differences in factor costs across country locations (comparative). Comparative advantage arises from the geographic configuration of location choices while competitive advantage resides in geographic coordination or organization (Rangan and Sengul 2009). Thus, integration allows the firm to disperse its value-adding activities across national markets while integrating some of these within the firm’s own boundaries. Two major activities in achieving global integration goals are coordination and control (Kim et al. 2003). The purpose of coordination is to achieve concerted action among the subunits and functional areas toward a unified organizational goal (Roth and Schweiger 1991). Coordination is essential in managing the interdependencies across the subunits of an organization. As coordination effort in an international business organization can range from low to high, the demand of a global strategy puts its coordination effort on the high end. A high degree of coordination implies that functional activities are tightly linked with one another and that these are tightly-integrated across geographic locations (Roth 1992). This integration leads to configural advantage (Craig and Douglas 2000). Thus, we propose that: P3: Superior performance of the MNE’s global strategy will be positively linked to increased integration and coordination of its value chain activities; that is, to the degree of its configural advantage. Structural and Process Requirements for Global Integration and Coordination Even though MNEs enjoy the benefit of abundant resources and capabilities coming from firm traits and aptitudes and the opportunities their environments present, designing the organizational structures and processes that best support the strategies they deploy that Effective Global Strategy Implementation 185 use the resources and capabilities that suit the demand of their external opportunities is mandatory in realizing superior performance. In fact, the task of management is to formulate strategies based on the resources and capabilities of the firm and match them with identifiable opportunities in the external environment by selective market entry. Strategy, as such, is seen as an outcome of the process of identifying the alignment of the resources and capabilities of the firm and the opportunities present in the environment. Implementing such a strategy relies primarily on supporting the organizational structures and processes that are in place. Without the appropriate strategy, processes and structure, firm traits and aptitudes and market contexts may each present benefits by themselves, but they may also lead to detrimental performance when inappropriately combined. As such, firms need to examine both their internal strengths and the external opportunities they face and attempt to achieve the best synergy between these two. While strategy is mostly focused on identifying market opportunities that best utilize the resources of the firm, the reverse is also possible; the firm may identify opportunities in the environment but find that it lacks the resources to exploit these. Unique combinations of these structure and strategy elements will yield unique levels of strategic performance (Olson et al. 2005). Interrelationships among the internationalizing firm’s strategy, structure, and processes are positively associated with market performance and will lead to strategy implementation types that can serve as major sources of sustainable global competitive advantage (Xu et al. 2006). Structure A critical determinant of success in implementing a global strategy is the development of effective structures that will carry firm strategy toward superior performance. Organizational structural forces are crucial to effectively deploying and integrating firm resources (Fang and Zou 2009). One element of this effort is the global configuration of value chain activities such that achievement of the firm’s objectives is rationalized. Sourced in competitive advantage theory (Porter 1990), this effort involves selectively concentrating and dispersing activities across the firm’s global network so that it can differentiate, pursue cost efficiencies, focus on market niches, and achieve economies of scale in doing so (Roth 1992). It also involves assigning various roles to the firm’s affiliates so that they will serve the firm’s objectives in the most effective manner. For instance, subsidiaries might play such roles as strategic leader, implementer, and contributor, depending on their level of local competencies and the strategic importance of their markets to the firm or can be early or late movers in carrying the firm’s products throughout its network, depending on their special strengths and competitive advantages (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989, 1992). The firm’s aims with regard to each local market as it incrementally internationalizes, and its desire for control over affiliates vs. encouragement of autonomy in local markets, can lead to subsidiary roles as local barons or implementers of headquarters strategies (Solberg 2000). These roles can then create internationalizing networks modeled as federations, confederations, and the United Nations (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989; solberg 2000). Of the different dimensions of organizational structure, three dimensions are recognized as the most influential on global integration and coordination: formalization, departmen- 186 A. Yaprak et al. talization, and centralization. Formalization is defined as the degree to which organizational norms are defined explicitly (Hall 1982). It essentially prescribes the acceptable and unacceptable behaviors within an organization. Roth and Schweiger (1991) argue that formalization boosts integration and coordination efforts by decreasing the discretion of the managers at both the headquarters and the subsidiary levels. Formalization reduces the direct involvement of the headquarters in subsidiaries by offering rules and procedures that fertilize the emergence of dominant logic within the organization. This dominant logic fosters similar actions from managers at different geographic locations. In addition, firms also increase integration efficiency by formalizing the ways functional activities are performed across units. By establishing standardized procedures, policies and rules, the effectiveness of integration will increase as the process of conducting activities is codified, a form of coordination by standardization (Kim et al. 2003). Centralization is concerned with decision making authority and is regarded as an important means of reaching coordination goals within an MNE (Roth and Schweiger 1991). A global strategy leads to higher levels of interdependencies among the subunits within a global organization. This would require a higher level of coordination among the functional activities. Adopting a centralization structure in an MNE means that critical decision-making lies at the top management level because better understanding of the various activities and units scattered around the world is possible there (Kim et al. 2003). It could be argued that while formalization facilitates coordination of global integration, centralization plays more of a role in the control of global integration. The assumption here is that with a decentralized structure, each subunit will focus on achieving its individual goals and tasks resulting in the sacrifice of the overall goal of the organization. Formalization and centralization along the firm’s value chain configuration will also affect its strategic behavioral orientations, such as customer, competitor, and innovationorientation, and by extension, the firm’s strategic performance. Departmentalization is defined as the degree to which the tasks are confined to a predetermined domain and members of departments are isolated from cross-functional interactions (Mintzberg et al. 1976). Departmentalization is believed to be detrimental to the integration and coordination effectiveness in business. It is argued that resource integration, especially as it involves knowledge integration, is an essential way to generate new ideas, particularly for new product development purposes. By isolating the subunits or functions from each other, members of the organization lose sight of the overall picture and the unique goals of the organization. Thus, we propose that: P4: Formalization and centralization of structure will positively influence integration and coordination effectiveness in firms that adopt a global strategy. P5: Departmentalization of structure will negatively influence integration and coordination effectiveness in firms that adopt a global strategy. Processes The major characterization of global strategy is focused on the integration of the firm’s global network of activities and the coordination of functions and resources that will yield enhanced strategy performance. This perspective is concerned with whether subsidiaries Effective Global Strategy Implementation 187 are standalone profit centers or parts of a more holistic design of deliberately integrated units (Lim et al. 2006). Its focus is on the dependence of affiliates on the headquarters and the interdependence among the subsidiaries for materials, resources, learning, efficiencies, and company-wide decision-making (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989; Lim et al. 2006). When combined with the market offering and the concentration dimensions of strategy (Lim et al. 2006), and under the umbrella of contingency theory (Van de Ven and Drazin 1985), this perspective provides a window into our understanding of the spread of strategic autonomy, functional and operative control over affiliates, resource sharing, and cross-market consultation in he internationalizing firm. Dependence of the firm on its local affiliate or subsidiary for market knowledge due to lack of its own proficiency would lead the firm, for instance, to nurture interdependencies with its affiliates and strategic control over them. Low dependence of the subsidiaries on the headquarters, along with low interdependence among subsidiaries and high subsidi ary autonomy are associated with worldwide mandates assigned to subsidiaries (Lim et al. 2006). The organizational processes of MNEs largely involve the control aspects of organizational activities. Gencturk and Aulakh (1995) classify formal control mechanisms as market-based and hierarchy-based. Birkinshaw and Morrison (1995) add the heterarchy model as an alternative control process. While the market-based control process intuitively works against the goal of integration and coordination, the hierarchy- and the heterarchybased control mechanisms facilitate integration and coordination to a greater degree. We argue, however, that the heterarchy-based control process is more appropriate for a global strategy. First, the hierarchy concept is incongruous with interdependence among the various regional and strategic business units that make up the global enterprise. Second, the hierarchy model implies unidirectional control, imposed by the headquarters over the subsidiary units, a notion incompatible with global integration. Finally, global integration requires stability and instrumentality to succeed and at least one of these, instrumentality, is less present in the hierarchy model than the other models of control. The heterarchy control model, in contrast, is based on three characteristics that global integration requires: dispersion of resources and capabilities; existence of lateral relationships among subunits; and coordinated activities. We feel that all three of these are consistent with the coordination and integration efforts of an MNE and foster greater integration. Thus, we propose that: P6: Adoption of a heterarchy-based control model will positively influence the integration and coordination effectiveness of firms that adopt a global strategy. The Interaction of Strategy, Structure, and Process While each of strategy, structure, and process may have a direct impact on firm performance, the interaction among the three may exert even greater influence on that performance. Viewing strategy as matching resources with the environment focuses essentially on strategy formulation. This relies largely on the fit of the external environment with the firm. However, strategy implementation requires achieving the firm’s intended benefit. It relies more on the internal fit within the organization; that is, the fit between structure and processes (Venkatraman and Camillus 1984). Venkatraman and Camillus (1984) argue 188 A. Yaprak et al. that effective implementation of any strategy requires congruence among a large number of internal elements. This implies that the supporting role of structure and process cannot be separated from each other. In addition, the dominant logic in the strategic management literature is that strategy is the overriding concern, while structure and process are derived from strategy. Strategic performance is determined by how effectively the firm’s strategy is implemented, and by extension, how marketing objectives are accomplished (Olson et al. 2005). While there are many dimensions to performance measurement, financial and non-financial measurement metrics are typically used in strategy performance contexts. Among these are profitability, ROI, and sales volume, as well as the strategic position of the firm relative to its most relevant competitor, its relative market share in key markets, and expectations compared to relevant competitors and satisfaction with achieved expectations (Olson et al. 2005; Zou and Cavusgil 2002). We argue that a holistic view should be used in measuring strategic performance; a measure that would incorporate both financial and non-financial considerations. We also argue that, all things considered, the strategy, concentration, and integration/coordination conceptualizations of global strategy will mediate the relationship between the firm and market antecedents of performance and strategic performance itself. This is evidenced by recent research which shows that the interplay of strategy, structure and processes lead to higher levels of performance when they are mediated by co-alignment of strategy with the market context (Xu et al. 2006). Thus, we propose that: P7: Firm and market antecedents of firm performance will be mediated by the interplay among the strategy, structure, nd process components of internationalizing firms. The Capability of Configuring Strategy, Structure, and Process The capability of an MNE to successfully configure a harmonious strategy, structure, and process could be a source of competitive advantage. Unlike the tangible resources such as plant and raw materials, intangible resources and capabilities such as t he ability to align structural and process dimensions with the chosen strategy cannot be easily copied or substituted. When skillfully leveraged, these capabilities offer bases of competitive advantage and increase the effectiveness and efficiency in implementing a chosen strategy. Capability development is viewed as path dependent (Nelson and Winter 1982). Firms accumulate knowledge and capabilities by learning by doing. Dosi et al. (1990) views the firm as a historic entity in which repetitive activities offer the opportunity to learn and form routines and search processes. In this perspective, capabilities are viewed as emerging from the past history of learning by doing. Firms may also actively invest in organizational structures and processes to make constant improvements of routines and practices (Ethiraj et al. 2005). As such, capabilities are a combined result of passive learning by doing and active investment in learning. MNEs with extensive internationalization experiences would have the opportunity to nurture the capability to align their structure and process with their strategies. As such, we propose that: Effective Global Strategy Implementation 189 P8: The international experience of an MNE will be positively associated with its capabilities to configure organizationally effective strategy, structure, and process combinations. Discussion? and? Suggestions? or? Future? Research The relationship between global strategy making and its performance outcomes has generated a rich stream of research in the extant literature during the last few decades. This interest was heightened recently with the explosive growth in international business activity, especially by internationalizing firms from the emerging economies. This recent interest has resulted in conceptual developments attempting to explai n the roles of various antecedents in explaining strategic performance and empirical testing of these frameworks (e. . , Katsikeas et al. 2006; Lim et al. 2006; solberg 2000; Zou and Cavusgil 2002). More recent work has explored the significance of the roles played by various moderators in explaining the strength of the antecedents-performance relationship (Schilke et al. 2009). All of these studies have deepened our understanding of the strategy making-performance relationship, but we do not yet have a comprehensive picture of many of the actors that might mediate this relationship. In this paper, we attempt to contribute to this void by developing one such picture. We propose that firm traits and market contexts will positively affect strategic performance, but this relationship should be enhanced when mediated by the interplay among the strategy (standardization vs adaptation), structure (concentration vs dispersion), and process (integration vs independence) dimensions of strategy making (Lim et al. 2006). We offer propositions about each of these dimensions and the interface they have with the antecedents and outcomes of strategy formulation. Our work is exploratory and thus aims at offering a conceptual framework that should lead to empirical research. Some empirical questions that future research might explore include the following. First, what are the theory bases that might give us a better understanding of this relationship? The extant literature is full of studies that are anchored in the contingency and the configurational theories, but other theories/paradigms, such as agency theory, transactions cost economics, the resource based view, and social exchange theory might be fruitful avenues of inquiry in explaining the strategy making-strategic performance relationship. For example, agency theory may shed greater light on the impact of principal-agent relationships on product introduction rollouts in international markets and how these might shape the strategy formulation-strategic performance linkage. Social exchange theory might explore the significance that such constructs as trust, commitment, forbearance, and lack of opportunism might render on this relationship. The resource based view might explain the significance of the role played by the interdependence among the firm’s affiliates as they share certain types of esources; participate in decision-making contexts; and leverage capabilities across the firm’s network in the strategy making-strategic performance link. Second, what is the role of culture in defining and predicting the outcomes of the strategy-performance link? Culture, for instance, might influence conceptualizations of the degree of control desired, what it means to be autonomous or interdependent, what kinds 190 A . Yaprak et al. f gains autonomy and interdependence might bring to subsidiaries and how desired these might be, and how norms and values might shape value chain configurations and levels of adaptations needed in different markets. Third, what role does time play in the shaping of this relationship? Longitudinal studies might show, for example, that the strategy making-strategic performance link changes in short time frames for some products, medium time frames for others, and long time frames for still others. Finally, are there other dimensions of strategy and/or performance that should be considered and how might these interact with the three discussed in this paper? For example, the firm’s position along its internationalization path or the level of its participation in its global markets might be dimensions that need to be considered more formally to better understand the strategy-performance relationship. The interactions among these and the dimensions already considered in the literature are also worthy of further study. Our purpose is to depict a more comprehensive picture of the strategy formulationstrategic performance relationship in international business and to suggest that the interplay among strategy, structure, and processes of the firm mediates that relationship. 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Simultaneous Localization and Mapping

Question: Discuss the basic apprehension regarding the Simultaneous Localization and mapping or SLAM. Answer: Introduction The purpose of this article is to discuss the basic apprehension regarding the Simultaneous Localization and mapping or SLAM. This article also delves into the extensive researches that have been performed on Simultaneous Localization and mapping over the decades since, the time it was first devised (Ahn, Doh and Chung, 2015). Simultaneous Localization and Mapping is the system by the implementation of which a mobile automatic vehicle or robot is made to create a map of the environment where that mobile automatic vehicle or robot is currently located, and computes its own location on the map that it is creating at the same time. A rapid and intense development in this particular field has been observed in the past decade along with numerous compelling implementations in the use of SLAM methods. SLAM an acronym for Simultaneous Localization and Mapping refers to a robotic mapping system. The SLAM is actually a computational algorithm used for updating or constructing a map of a location which is unknown to the user who is constructing the algorithm, aiming to keep track of the location of an agent within the map. This might seem as a problem that circulates on the same topic simultaneously, the fundamental purpose of SLAM technology is used widely mapping systems, where it is exclusively used to construct a map of an unknown location (Buck, 2014). For instance, if a group of researchers are exploring an unexplored area under the ocean, which might be too risky for them to approach directly; they deploy a probe i.e. a machine functioning on the principles of robotics, implement slam techniques in the robot/probe to explore the region which cannot be accessed by humans. In this example the robot/probe deployed by the group of researchers is the agent and the technology used fo r mapping the unknown location chosen for the exploration is SLAM or Simultaneous Localization and Mapping technique. The Purpose SLAM Serves The technique is to solve a problem by means of making use of several algorithms. These algorithms are exclusively designed for the purpose of solving a SLAM problem so that the technique can be used accordingly (Carmack, 2014). Although there is no certainty or guarantee that a certain use of the SLAM technique will result in meeting the expectations however, in is assured that a certain level of success can be achieved while implementing slam techniques in the exploration and mapping purposes. This is due to the fact that the algorithms that are used to work out the SLAM problems have been designed to utilize the available resources and when mapping unknown regions it is capable of making use of the existing resources and create a map according to the resources that were previously incorporated in it. Furthermore, in order to obtain the approximate results proper filters are required to be implemented in solving the SLAM problem. In such cases filters like the Kalman Filter and Par ticle filter are found to be very effective. Slam techniques and tested approaches are commonly used in domestic robots, unmanned airborne vehicles, auto functioning land vehicles, planetary rovers, self guiding underwater vehicles, and even exploration of the human body where most definitely no other means of exploration can be implemented (Corbett, n.d.). The fundamental question that arises from the SLAM problem is that whether it is possible for the automatic means that is being used for the purpose, to be actually placed at an anonymous location and in an anonymous atmosphere. Furthermore, it also delves into the possibilities that whether it would be actually possible for that automatic means to create map of the location and further, compute back its own location in the map which it was meant to create in the first place. The problem seems critical and the possibilities of success are limited (Crew, Phanavanh and Garcia-Borges, 2014). Therefore, in a situation like this the solution for this problem has been compared with the Holy Grail in the mobile robotics vista. Since, implementation of a technology like this would result in giving autonomous capabilities to a robot or any other automatic means or vehicles. Therefore, it would open the window for new possibilities in the field of science and technology if achieved. The solutions that were developed over the years to solve the problems relating to SLAM, has been one of the major breakthroughs in the field of technology in the past decade. The solution to the problem came from formulating the SLAM problem into a theoretical problem and then solving it in multiple forms so that; once the problem is deduced it would be unwise not to open access for multiple possibilities (Ferreira et al., 2013). After solving the SLAM problem, the approach was implemented in multiple domains to understand and analyze the end results that would come out from its implementation on robots, airborne and underwater systems before the concept could be used in the planetary rovers. Conceptually and theoretically, SLAM at present can be considered to be a problem whose solution has been discovered. Yet, some of the significant issues still persist. These issues persist in comprehending or finding more generic solutions for SLAM, which would especially be effective in perceiving the surrounding environment and creating better maps as a component of the algorithm it is responsible to. This would not only enhance the functionality of the object on which the SLAM has been implemented upon but also aid in the creation of better and detailed maps of the region aimed for the purpose (Gentile, 2013). The progress that the modern technology is making towards this concept has been seen in the Mars Rover Project. The Mars Rover Project concept was based on the concept of SLAM techniques and uses the theories and formulas that resulted in giving reality to the SLAM concept. However, the method of SLAM incorporated in the Mars Rover is different than the method used in domes tic and outdoor robots. The method of SLAM used in the Mars Rover is far superior and relies on the concept and theories mentioned at the start of this passage. A brief History about the SLAM problem The birth of the probability based SLAM problem happened in the year of 1986 at the IEEE Automation and Robotics symposium held in San Francisco. This was the period when the probability based methods were being used introduced in giving a conscience to the AI and robots. However, this period was just the beginning of the phase and the researchers associated with this vision were looking forward to apply theoretic estimation methods to solve localization and mapping predicaments. These group of researchers included Jim Crowley, Hugh Durrant Whyte and Peter Cheeseman (Havangi, 2015). The result of the symposium came out with the recognition given to the method or to better say to the concept of probabilistic localization and mapping. This was based on Durrant-Whyte, Cheeseman and Smiths statistical work on the manipulation of geometric uncertainty between landmarks and describing the relationship between. The key feature of this statistical work was to demonstrate the requirement for a high degree correlation to be present between that which was to be the estimated location of the various landmarks in the map. In addition, it required to be focused on in a regard that the correlations would develop with each successive and subsequent observations (He et al., 2013). During this period two other researchers dealing with the incorporation of probability based method in localization and mapping, Faugeras and Ayache had taken the responsibility in developing means that would provide visual navigation. Crowley with two other researchers Laumond and Chatila were concentrating on developing navigation systems for mobile robots that would incorporate sonar based approach by means of using Kalmans Filter and that sort of algorithms (Kim, 2012). Both the research groups and the research works they were engaged in were more or less engaged in similar sort of work. In this period Cheeseman, Durrant-Whyte and Smith had obtained a breakthrough with their new theory. This theory described that with every movement that the mobile robot makes in an unknown atmosphere, it will keep a track of its surrounding atmosphere. It will track and compute its observations of the surrounding landmarks along with its own location. The estimates of the landmarks were going to be precisely correlated since; the estimated vehicle location system had its errors. This suggestion that their theory offered was insightful (Kster, 2014). This would require a dependable and complete solution for the combined mapping and localization problem. Furthermore, this would require a joint status of the vehicle composing of its position and estimation of each of the landmark position, and this would be updated with the observation of each landmark the mobile robot will be passing through. This would apparently mean the robot will be computing its own position at a stipulated interval of time or on the basis of landmarks it came across. Moreover, it would require the one observing and noting down the estimates in the robots programming to make use of a massive state vector, which would include an order based on the numeric data representation on the landmarks which were being maintained in the particular map, complete with appropriate computing and scaling of the squares of the figure of landmarks (Milstein, 2012). Importantly enough this work did overlook the aspects of converging properties of the steady behavior of the map. At that point of time it was widely presumed that the errors consisting in the estimated map would less likely converge and instead showcase an error growth that was unbounded and random walk behavior. Therefore, provided with the complexity in the computing process regarding the predicament in the mapping process and the lack of knowledge regarding the converging behavior with the map, researchers now concentrated on finding approximations that would help them solve the constant predicament relating to mapping (Oh and Sim, 2014). This resulted or to better say forced the estimated correlations between the estimated landmarks to be eliminated or reduced depending the complexity as a result, reducing the entire filter to a series of landmarks that were decoupled to vehicle filters. In addition, as a consequence the theoretical exercise on the combined mapping and localizat ion problem came to a momentary halt, where mapping and localization were dealt in separately with the objective to find separate solutions for each of them. This however, did not render the research to a permanent halt only hindered its progress for the time being only (Rethi, 2016). It is apparent from the analysis on the history that the method dealt with an approach towards the problem which was of complex nature. Furthermore, the entire concept for the project was dealing with ascertaining the uncertain itself thus, it was bound to be hindered in some way or the other, and this was the momentary halt that the researchers of this project found themselves in. however, the conceptual advance came up when the researchers realized that the combination of localization and mapping problem that they were facing at the moment was the consequence had formulated from a single error in their estimation process, and it related to the earlier predicament of convergence (Rich, 2015). Importantly enough the researchers realized that the predicament was existing among the correlations of the landmarks. Most of the researchers had tried to solve this predicament but neglected the fact that this was the most crucial part. It was not late when the researchers realized the fact t hat the more the correlations sprung the better the solutions were to be discovered. This was the answer that the researchers were looking forth to obtain from the questions that arose from past errors, complexities and failures. In the year of 1995 the combined efforts of these researchers and the breakthrough that they had achieved in the field mapping and localization estimation was presented in the Mobile Robotic Survey Paper in that very years International Symposium on Robotics Research (Schz, 2012). It was this very moment that the term SLAM i.e. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping was coined along with its structure and a whole new theory relating to convergence was published. At present a number of researches are being carried on based on the essential principles of this theory and dynamics on the field of robotics. In these researches the exponential possibilities of the SLAM technique is being implemented upon. Testing the concept on domestic and surveillance bots are being carried out to learn the various probabilities and possibilities the concept is capable of unlocking (Sowter, Hale and Starr, 2013). Some of the instances of the successes that these researches have achieved over the past decades can be seen in the robots, unmanned airborne vehicles, auto functioning land vehicles, planetary rovers, self guiding underwater vehicles, and even exploration of the human body where most definitely no other means of exploration can be implemented. Critical analysis and appraisal The above sections dealt with the nature of the SLAM technique and the potential it has in the field of robotics, and using the robots for mapping and localization. The purpose of this section is to provide a critical analysis on the SLAM technique and appreciate the fact that it is indeed a major breakthrough that the 21st century observed. The orientation of the researchers when they had merely conceived the concept was to evaluate a means of estimation that will redefine exploration. Exploration back then was the only means through which the mapping and localization could be accomplished. With this conception in their minds they used mathematical probability and converted the probability into theoretical stratagem (Szewczyk, Zielin ski and Kaliczyn ska, n.d.). This conversion of mathematical formulae into a theoretical stratagem instilled in their minds a better understanding of actual matters that they had to deal with. With this comprehension on the goals they had to accomplish with the understanding they had perceived they set on to try implementing this understanding on different projects. The end results of the projects they had work on with this particular theory they were able to get a clear picture of what they would be required to do in order to give reality to their original concept. As already discussed in its brief history the more complex the nature of the analysis was the better the solutions the researchers could obtain. This indeed was a distinguishing aspect of the concept. Since, most the theories in the field of technology focused more on minimizing the growing complex in the implementation of various concepts. This particular concept need not require control in this aspect (Taibi, 2014). Furthermore, the basis of the concept was the inclusion of more and more estimations in the surroundings of its agents. The more variables in the end results demonstrated the higher success rate. In addition, the concept had just opened new boundaries for the extra-terrestrial exploration purposes. Researchers lost no time in capitalizing on this exposure, which in turn resulted in the development of the Mars rover project. This project focused on exploring the surface of the Mars which could not be accessed by normal means. This further required a method through which the probe or robot would be able to explore the surface of Mars and also compute its observation and location at the same time. However, the concept was implemented in the mars rover project that opened an all new possibility in this project (Williams et al., 2013). Apart from that the SLAM technique was being implemented on drones that would operate automatically or via remote guidance system. This research also gained success as the drone would operate automatically in the environment which has been selected for its flight course, and collect observation of its nearest landmarks and constantly compute its own location. The possibilities that the SLAM technique had just opened for the purpose of exploration, mapping and pinpointing localization were boundless. As, the operation of the concept required estimating the probabilities and variables that would greatly affect the possibilities of the end result, a few resources were required to carry out an operation based on this concept. Furthermore, the operations based on this concept did not necessarily require additional resources from the region chosen for the exploration, mapping and localization, researchers could just use the resources that they possessed in order to commence and carry out the operation (Williams and Canedy, 2012). However, there was and is still a drawback of the SLAM technique. It is that the technique is based on approximates and the results that are produced from the technique is based on approximates only. There is no assurance that the analysis could actually produce precise results. The concept of this technique is to prov ide an apprehension of the environment it is exploring and not a precise figure. Therefore, the results may vary upon further using mapping and localization technologies like using surveillance cameras. One of the prime need in which SLAM is used is that it has great efficiency when it comes to measurement. Measuring a certain distance between two points or the overall size of a certain region can be quite easily accomplished with the implementation of SLAM techniques. This procedure includes that the unmanned device or robot is set to cover a certain distance between two points, regardless of the way it has been directed to, the unmanned device or the robot will make the necessary observations around it and estimate the distance that it traversed during the operations. The most usual form that is used in measuring is the laser scanner like LIDAR. These type scanners incorporate laser in them and are far easy to use than most other means and offer accurate results (YUAN and ZHAO, 2011). Nevertheless, these are not known to be cheap therefore, widespread implementation of these scanners in measuring is not quite possible. Still, other options exist, e.g. the prototype that Crowley, a nd two of his fellow researchers worked upon used SONAR technology. This implementation of SONAR to the SLAM was found to be very effective and the end results were very promising. Furthermore, these technologies are far cheaper compared to laser scanners and can be afforded by researchers having small to moderate grants. In addition, using SONAR technology would help in mapping environments that are located underwater. Imaging devices can also be for mapping and localization purposes. These devices or optical readers as per their technical names are available in both 3d and 2d formats. The dependency of the measurement devices rely heavily on aspects like, preferences, variables, and availability and of course costs (Zikos and Petridis, 2014). One more key element in the SLAM method is acquiring the data on the subject of the environmental background of the unmanned vehicle or robot. Similar to that of a human being, the unmanned vehicle or the robot uses the landmarks in determining its locations by the use of sensors attached to it. Regardless of the device that is being used for the purpose the medium i.e. the unmanned vehicle or robot is capable of observing the data and compute it on a constant basis. The robot or the unmanned vehicle will be using different landmarks for the various environments it operates in. however, there are certain dispositions that are required to be kept in mind the technique has not developed to the fullest possible extent thus, the robot or the unmanned vehicle will only be capable of determining landmarks which are stationary. As already stated the technique and the algorithms have not developed to the fullest possible extent and so it will not be able to assess a landmark that is moving c onstantly. In addition, the landmarks in order to be estimated are required to be distinguishable and can be recognized from the regular environment. Lastly the landmarks should be dense and have the possibility of viewing it from a wide range of angles. Nevertheless, in recent researches it has been observed that SLAM with DATMO Detection and Tracking of Moving Objects is not only capable of operating in dynamic environments but also is fully capable of tracking and detailing the objects consisting the dynamic environment. The basis of the operating algorithm has been derived from the Bayesian formula, which provides the best possible apprehension on this particular subject matter. The SLAM technique deserves appraisal and it gained appraisal from the international robotics community, international technological gazettes and other communities concentrated on the science and technology field. It was the wide scope the technology had bestowed upon mankind that it deserved appreciation. For instance, this technique could be implemented in exploring and mapping the interior of a human or animal body. This was not possible and is not possible in the present times without injuring the subjects body. However, with the advancement of science and technology in the years to come this could used in exploring and mapping the interiors of organic bodies like the organisms consisting the biological world, including humans. For this purpose the technology needs to development minute robots or AI bots that would be minute enough to be inserted in the body without physically harming the body. Once inside the body the bots would be able to move inside the body constantly observi ng and computing the landmarks and it would be able compute its own location as well. This would provide the researchers with the knowledge of the points that the bots have explored and the current location of the bots. Moreover, as the Mars Rover is maneuvered on the surface of Mars, the researchers carrying out the instanced project would be able to maneuver the bots. Apart from these aspects that SLAM has achieved as mapping and localization estimating method, there are persisting problems in the computational complexity and data association that need to be resolved fully and comprehensively. For instance identifying multiple and confusing landmarks still persists to be a challenge for the researchers. However, a recent research acquired a significant breakthrough in the SLAM literature based on the feature of re-evaluation of probabilistic foundation for SLAM i.e. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping. In this breakthrough it demonstrated its efficiency in terms of multiple objects Bayesian method of filtering. This filtering method incorporated finite sets aimed at providing advanced performance to leading SLAM algorithms featuring challenging measurements for scenarios having greater false alarm rates and greater missed detection rates by means of minimizing the requirement for data association. Two of the accepted techniques or filters for ha ndling more than one object are Probability hypothesis density filter and the Joint Probabilistic Data Association. Joint Probabilistic data association filter or JPDAF is actually an extension of the probabilistic data association filter, which is responsible for the assumption that one of the many potent entrants to the track is the correct one. It consists of an approach based on statistical analysis and deals with the issues relating to plot associations in radar tracker. In this process all the potential entrants posed for the association to a track are amalgamated in a sole and positive statistical probable update taking into account the precise statistical distribution of the clutters and errors in the track. This further requires assuming that one among the multiple entrants is the target and rest of the entrants is merely false alarms. It is one of the effective SLAM techniques used for the purpose of visual tracking in the computer vision field. Recommendations The SLAM technique is undoubtedly having great potential in analyzing and mapping the sectors and environments which are out of the human reach. Therefore, the modern science and technology can benefit from this technology to great extent, if the innovators are prepared to build on it. The defense system of a country could be given new possibilities as this technique would offer them with the access to perform surveillances without attracting the attention of the enemies. In the earlier times surveillance systems incorporated photography and video capturing through aerial vehicles like jets and drones. In these scenarios the cameras were fixed to drones and the pilot had the access to remotely capture images from the cockpit. This led to many hassles and even loss of property and valuable lives. Therefore, incorporating advanced visual tracking systems available in the computer vision field would help in aiding such sort of surveillance systems. Useful realizations of probabilistic SLAM have turned out to be more and more remarkable in the recent years. Capable of covering larger regions in more difficult environments have become a whole lot easier with the due passage of time. Here discussions on two implementations that will represent the major successes and mention other notable applications have been provided. The explore and return" experiment carried out by Newman was a moderate-scale indoor implementation SLAM technique that validated the non-divergent features of EKF-SLAM, which returned back to the specifically marked commencing position. The end result of the experimentation was extraordinary because the return trip was completely autonomous. The robot had been driven manually at the time of the exploration phase, although it did not have any visual contact with the operator. The operator solely relied on a real-time rendering of the map that the robot had been drawing up as a consequence of its exploration. During its return trip, the robot by means of the data that it had computed earlier had drawn its very own path and returned to the point from which it had started its journey without any sort of human intervention. This research demonstrated the capability of the concept and the results it might bring when used in the medical research field. It has already been discussed in the critical analysis section however; it was not fully discussed as to how the bots that will be inserted inside the human interiors would be able to function. Therefore, the research study was introduced in this part to provide an apprehension on the real time analysis on the way the technique will be functioning. This technique if applied to the medical sciences would greatly benefit the people in the wider perspective. The technique would not only help the practitioners deduce the disorder but also they will be able to analyze the intense of the disorder. For instance, in case of a severe fracture if the technique is used the practitioners would be able to determine the extent of the fracture and take necessary steps for the treatment. This technique would also be a great help in underwater exploration. Similar to the aerial extra-terrestrial exploration this kind of mapping and localization has posed a lot of challenges over the years. Since the submarines and underwater vehicles have limited accessibility as a result of their large size using small robots would help greatly in gaining access to those spots where the access cannot be gained by using other vehicles. Conclusion The purpose of this essay was to present the SLAM technique involved in mapping and localizations purposes. This essay consisted of an introduction to the topic which particularly focused on elaborating the concept of SLAM. The introductory part dealt with the method by means of which SLAM technique operates and the purposes it is capable of serving. In the subsequent section an analysis is presented that deals with the brief history of the SLAM concept. It is in this section that an elaborate discussion is presented on the functioning of the SLAM technique and the factors that are directly related with its appropriate functioning. In the section subsequent this one critical analysis on the functioning of SLAM technique has been presented to offer an in-depth apprehension on the impact SLAM technology has made in the field of science and technology. This particular section of the essay also dealt with the purposes that the SLAM technique can serve with the advancement of Science and technology and lastly a few recommendations on the ways the technique can be implemented with the orientation to innovate and create better technological aspects. References Ahn, S., Doh, N. and Chung, W. (2015). ROBUST NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES FOR THE GVG-BASED SLAM IN UNSTRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT.IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 38(1), pp.463-468. Buck, M. (2014). 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